he history of Pakistan is riddled with crises of various kinds — social, political, economic and military. It reflects a venomous power struggle, a tug of war between political elements and the establishment, leading the nation into an uncertain future. Military interventions and the divided political opinion on sensitive national and international issues have added fuel to the fire. Political parties are often at loggerheads. Economic chaos invariably follows political turmoil. Each newly installed government blames its predecessor for the political, social and economic maladies, inevitably approaching the IMF to avert imminent economic collapse.

The publication of Tahir Kamran’s book, Chequered Past, Uncertain Future: The History of Pakistan, coincides with yet another moment of crisis in Pakistan’s political and economic development following Imran Khan’s ousting from power in April 2022 and its economic and political fallout. Owing to the multidimensional character of this crisis Pakistan faces an unprecedented situation. The author seeks to expose the power structures formed by the collaboration between bureaucratic, landed and military elites. The book unveils the neo-colonial structures that control the political, economic, social and cultural patterns of Pakistani society.

The book is divided into 14 chapters covering the various issues confronting Pakistan and its people. The introduction by Ian Talbot examines the central idea of the book. The epilogue proposes some remedies for the problems discussed in the book. The major focus, nevertheless, is on “imbalances in the civil-military relationship.” The book reveals a pattern of authoritarianism: muzzling the press, implicating opponents in false cases and pulverising the political and democratic climate. It highlights the absence of rule of law and perpetuation of dynastic politics as the root causes of the lack of political and economic stability.

A distinctive feature of the book is that it delineates, albeit briefly, the biographical sketches of political and military leaders who ruled over Pakistan. Rarely do we find references to cultural and literary figures alongside political personalities in the history books of Pakistan. Tahir Kamran mentions literary stalwarts like Amir Khusrau (1253–1325), Ghalib (1797–1869) and Allama Muhammad Iqbal to emphasise their contribution in “creating an enduring ethnic and linguistic pluralism.” On page 108, he mentions the literati of the post-partition era, including Faiz Ahmed Faiz, Noon Meem Rashid, Majeed Amjid, Nasir Kazmi, Munir Niazi and Intezar Hussain. “These visionary artists were steeped in a rich and diverse literary tradition that had taken shape in the pre-partition landscape of India, reflecting a nuanced cross-cultural ethos that permeated their work.”

The canvas of the book is broad. It include discussion of some issues often considered taboo. While many Pakistani historians and writers have exhausted their energies justifying the creation of Pakistan based on the Two-Nation Theory, unified faith and culture and historical grievances, they have overlooked the ethnic diversity, cultural disparities and linguistic differences among communities, which surfaced after the creation of Pakistan to challenge the idea of one culture, language and history.

Their arguments mostly focus on the hostility of Hindus and the unjust treatment meted out to Muslims by the British. It is sometimes claimed that Pakistan’s history begins with the arrival of Muhammad bin Qasim in Sindh in 711 CE. Kamran laments the exclusion of the Indus Valley Civilisation from the collective memory of Pakistani students.

The book explores the development of civilisation and culture through various stages and periods of history. The evolution of a civilised way of life is confirmed by archaeological excavations, which unearthed “pots, pans, clothing and polished stones and weapons” among the ruins of well-planned houses and streets in areas that now form Pakistan. Chapter One, From Prehistory to the Early Modern Era, 3800 BCE to 1707 CE, provides a detailed history of not only the land but also the people who inhabited it.

The second chapter, The British Rule and the Rise of Muslim Nationalism, examines the far-reaching impact of the East India Company’s arrival in the subcontinent. Warren Hastings (1732–1818) and Robert Clive (1725–1774) played pivotal roles in consolidating the Company’s rule in Bengal. The British strategy of political, social and economic domination met with various resistance movements from the local population. Significant events, such as the establishment of Fort William College in 1800 and the War of Independence in 1857 – which ended the East India Company’s rule and marked the beginning of direct British Crown rule – had lasting repercussions. The British administrative and strategic reforms, coupled with Hindu revivalist movements, sowed doubts in the minds of Muslims and fostered the ideology of Muslim nationalism and separatism. The chapter focuses on the Muslim leadership’s struggle to navigate the turbulent waters of Indian politics and Muhammad Ali Jinnah’s transformation from a nationalist to a separatist stalwart.

Tahir Kamran’s Chequered Past, Uncertain Future: The History of Pakistan is a unique piece of writing in more than one way.

The third chapter, Bloodied Partition and the Punjab’s Bifurcation, recounts one of the darkest chapters in human history. The partition of India, particularly the bifurcation of the Punjab and Bengal, resulted in the loss of millions of lives on both sides of the border, along with material losses worth billions of rupees. The British failed to manage the situation. The handling of the boundary demarcation by the Boundary Commission, led by Cyril Radcliffe, highlights their haste and what has been described as their ‘shameful flight.’ Much of the chapter focuses on Punjab politics, the Unionist Party and related issues.

The fourth chapter, Multiple Challenges, Limited Options: Making Sense of the Early Problems, delves into the colossal challenges that emerged following Pakistan’s creation. As a former colonial society, the root causes of Pakistan’s social ills, economic struggles, political and administrative mismanagement and democratic failures are often traced back to the colonial era. Examining the causes of this mismanagement, the author observes that “the nexus between landlords and the military has remained a defining feature of Pakistani politics since its inception.”

One of the earliest problems was the framing of a truly democratic constitution for Pakistan, one that would clearly define the powers of the governor-general, the prime minister and the cabinet. It was decided to follow the 1935 Act, and the Quaid-i-Azam himself resolved the question of a separate governor-general for Pakistan by assuming the office himself. The author cites Aysha Jalal, who argues that “Jinnah’s resistance was rooted in his apprehension that having a common governor-general for both nations would hinder Pakistan from achieving full sovereignty, given the extensive discretionary powers vested in the governor-general under the Act of 1935.”

Pressing challenges, such as the rehabilitation of refugees, financial arrangements and the establishment of the armed forces and civil administrative system, demanded immediate attention. The Objectives Resolution, passed on March 12, 1949, was chosen as a way forward. Although there were strong voices raised against it, those were silenced in the name of ideology. This severely distorted the “pluralistic and secular spirit of democracy”, leading to political instability and authoritarianism, which subsequently fostered religious fundamentalism and sectarianism.

The dominance of religious parties and the establishment of religious madrasas began immediately after the Objectives Resolution was passed, reaching their zenith during Zia-ul Haq’s rule.

Four out of the fourteen chapters of the book focus on the rule by generals in their military uniforms. The saga of military rule began with Gen Muhammad Ayub Khan and ended with the ouster of Gen Pervez Musharraf. Their rule marked an era of military and civil bureaucracy partnerships in power politics. Some politicians willingly played the second fiddle. They made a mockery of Pakistan’s political system to remain in power, unchallenged and unopposed. Adventurism, unbridled political ambition and manipulation of election results wreaked havoc on the country’s integrity.

Gen Ayub Khan relied on Basic Democracies and promised an economic revolution. Yet his rule ended with his resignation following vehement street protests. He handed over power to Gen Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan, whose ‘full-scale military terror’ led to the dismemberment of Pakistan. Gen Zia-ul Haq used religion to justify his rule. His authoritarian regime fostered harsh reprisals, impunity, and willfulness, creating a culture of conformity, indifference and fanaticism. His legacy included drugs and the Kalashnikov culture. Pervez Musharraf’s engineered politics culminated in his humiliating ouster.

The chapters dealing with civilian prime ministers – Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Nawaz Sharif, Benazir Bhutto and Imran Khan – highlight a recurrent pattern of authoritarianism and dictatorial tendencies. Both print and electronic media were stifled, opponents were imprisoned on false charges and frequently threatened with prosecution under Article 6 of the Constitution. Complaints of missing persons were ignored. Judiciary management strategies were pursued doggedly. Their dependence on the establishment ultimately caused their downfall. The gap between what politicians claim and what they deliver is vast. This has resulted in a loss of public trust and credibility.

Tahir Kamran’s Chequered Past, Uncertain Future: The History of Pakistan is a unique piece of writing in more than one way. Its shifting narrative from history to literature seeks to highlight literary stalwarts whose contributions have largely gone unappreciated in Pakistan’s struggles. These literary figures arguably deserve a separate chapter. By quoting other historians, Kamran attempts to uncover the contradictions and conflicts within the country’s ideology. Unlike traditional historians, he also offers some remedies to address the issues confronting Pakistan.

However, the book is silent on foreign policy matters, particularly regarding relations with India. Can Pakistan achieve peaceful neighbourly relations with India without displeasing the establishment? The critical question remains unanswered. The central message of the book could be summarised as this: Pakistan must learn from its chequered past to ensure a secure and certain future.

Chequered Past, Uncertain Future

The History of Pakistan

Author: Tahir Kamran

Publisher:

ILQA Publications

Pages: 565

The reviewer holds a PhD in literature. He heads the English Department at Riphah International University, Gulberg Campus, Lahore. He is the author of Amorphous Lahore: Colonial and Postcolonial – A Journey through History and Fiction