l-Khansa (Tamdeer bint Amr, 575-645 CE) was the most prominent female poet of Jahiliyyah (the age of ignorance) and early Islamic Arabic literature. She is known for her emotional vehemence in Arabic requiem poetry. Khansa spends a large portion of her elegies mourning the deaths of her two brothers, Sakhr and Muawiya, who died in tribal conflicts. Perhaps this is why her poetry reflects tribal values, personal grief and the transition from the Jahili era to Islamic values.

It is well-known that poetry was of great significance in the Arabic civilisation during the Jahiliyyah period, not only as art but also as an effective means of preserving history, tribal conquests and the memory of heroes who died in battle. It should also be remembered that poetry was highly valued in the tribal societies of Arabia, where oral tradition was dominant. Poets enjoyed a special privilege as spokespeople for their clans.

The emergence of Khansa’s poetry was possible in this context. She was originally an elegiac poet. Most of her poetry deals with the personal agony of her brothers’ deaths. Apart from this, there is also an attitude of paying tribute to tribal heroes whose merits were forgotten. However, themes of fidelity, honour and the noble qualities of a warrior are often prominently featured in her poetry.

Bereavement is the main theme of Khansa’s poetry, especially the grief that arose from the death of her brother Sakhr. It is important to note that her poetry is not merely a personal lament but a broad reflection of pre-Islamic Arab values, where family honour and tribal pride were paramount.

Khansa’s poetry is particularly remarkable for the intensity of its grief. A deep sense of personal pain over Sakhr’s death permeates much of her work. This is likely why her expression of loss transcends time and culture. At this point, Khansa’s poetry takes on a sense of modernity. The overriding characteristic of her work is that there is not only the mourning of her brothers’ deaths but also the celebration of their gallantry, generosity and nobility. This act of celebration aligns with the extensive Arab tradition of extolling the bravery of warriors who die in battle.

In her poetry, Sakhr is portrayed as an ideal hero whose death is viewed not only as a personal tragedy but also as a great loss to the entire tribe. Another notable quality of Khansa’s poetry relates to the inevitability of destiny and death, reflecting a worldview in which life is valued and grief over the loss of loved ones is ever-present. Her enduring reference to destiny reveals how deeply the pre-Islamic Arabs felt their lives and destinies were shaped by intractable forces.

Khansa demonstrates a mastery of classical Arabic poetry, which is based on a specific poetic structure and innovative emotional expression. She uses rich metaphors to depict her grief and often invokes images from nature. Perhaps this is why the metaphor of night and its darkness emerges in her poetry as a symbol of her deep sorrow and despair resulting from death. For example, she equates her grief to a constant darkness that hangs over her soul:

[The sunrise reminds me of Sakhr,

And I remember him at every sunset.]

This couplet by Khansa reflects the constant memory of her brother Sakhr. It conveys the idea that her grief for her beloved brother endures from sunrise to sunset, making sorrow an infinite cycle. The repetition of such expressions is also a prominent feature in Khansa’s poetry, imparting a deep sense of inner emotion.

Al-Khansa was primarily an elegiac poet. She generally adhered to the traditional structure of the elegy, which was prevalent in Arabic poetry of the time, emphasising both the glorification of the deceased and the inevitability of death.

Khansa generally adhered to the traditional structure of the elegy, which was prevalent in Arabic poetry of the time, emphasising both the glorification of the deceased and the inevitability of death. Khansa’s contributions to elegiac poetry are notable for their intense expression of personal feelings. This means that she does not simply pay tribute to the deceased in a detached, formal style but also explores a range of emotions and experiences.

Khansa’s life bridged the contrast between the Jahiliyyah and early Islamic periods. With the advent of Islam, Khansa embraced the new religion and became a devout follower of the Holy Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). The prophet liked her poetry for its sincerity and fervent expression. Several accounts mention her presence in Islamic gatherings, where she recited her poetry.

Some changes are evident in her poetry during the early Islamic period. After converting to Islam, her perspective on poetry and mourning shifted. A part of her work began to reflect the new values fostered by Islamic teachings. For instance, when Khansa’s sons died in battle after converting to Islam, her grief over their deaths was markedly different from her pre-Islamic grief. The Islamic belief in martyrdom had transformed her concept of mourning.

A prominent aspect of Khansa’s personality was her literary intellect. Although she did not write any book on literary criticism, there is historical evidence that her literary consciousness was highly developed. In pre-Islamic Arabia, poetry contests were common, and poets were often invited to recite their work at gatherings.

Due to her reputation, Khansa was regarded as a formidable figure whose opinions were respected in such circles. Though she left no formal treatise on poetry, her participation in these gatherings and her interactions with other poets established her as a judge of quality and merit in poetry. This informal role as a judge, along with her own poetic achievements, allowed her to influence the standards by which poetry was evaluated in her time.

Khansa emphasised the importance of genuine emotion in poetry as is evident in her work. She believed that poetry should not merely showcase rhetorical flourishes or technical prowess, but should reflect human experience and emotions. She criticised poets who relied too heavily on artifice and lacked emotional authenticity.

Her emphasis on sincerity and emotional truth as the foundation of great poetry can be seen as an early form of literary criticism. She would likely have criticised poetry that felt hollow or lacked emotional depth, which is why her own poetry continues to resonate deeply with readers even today.

Khansa’s interactions with contemporary poets and scholars served as a form of literary criticism in practice. She is said to have engaged in discussions with poets like Hassaan ibn Thabit (554–674), the poet of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), and others in Medina. These debates and comparisons of poetic styles allowed her to offer insights into what she considered the strengths and weaknesses of various forms and themes in poetry.

While Khansa did not leave behind a body of theoretical literary criticism as later scholars like al-J hi (776–868) or al-Jurj n (1009–1078) did, her poetry and her stature as a poet functioned as a form of practical criticism. Her work illustrated the ideals she valued: emotional depth, linguistic purity and the celebration of heroism, thus influencing how poetry was both written and received in the generations that followed her.

It is widely acknowledged that modern feminist critics have recognised Khansa as an influential female poet in a male-dominated literary culture. However, her poetry does not reflect modern feminist ideas. It can be said that Khansa earned her place in a male-dominated literary society through her creative ability rather than through a specifically feminist perspective.

The writer is a poet and a critic. He is an assistant professor of Urdu at Chhatrapati Shahuji Maharaj University in Kanpur, India, and the author of three books.