rophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) is reported to have said: “Seek knowledge, even if you have to go to China.” The tradition signifies two things: first, it emphasises the importance of seeking knowledge, whether worldly or religious; second, it highlights the importance of China, which is capable of offering knowledge of its rich civilisational heritage, culture and scholarship, and accumulated wisdom. This hadith is frequently cited throughout the Islamic world; thereby, looking east, towards China and beyond.

Buddhism had spread from India to China through the famous Silk Road used by merchants and missionaries who carried Buddhist texts and ideas, connecting India with Central Asia and China. Along the route, important cities such as Kashgar, Samarkand and Dunhuang served as cultural hubs where Buddhist teachings and texts became popular and mass conversions to Buddhism took place. Some famous monks, including Xuanzang and Kumarajiva, travelled extensively in China to propagate Buddhist teachings and religious texts and established monasteries.

Xuanzang (also known as Hien Tsang) was a Chinese Buddhist monk and scholar, who travelled extensively and is renowned for his journey to India during 629-645 CE to study the origin and scriptures of Buddhism. His travels across north India and back to China proved to be an important link between the two regions and a cause of understanding between the two. Xuanzang visited many Buddhist sites, studied under the supervision of various scholars, and collected sacred texts which he carried back to China. These accounts recorded and published as Great Tang Records on the Western Regions provide valuable insights into the cultures, religions, geography and history of both India and China.

“Look East” was a policy initiative introduced by the Indian government during the early 1990s. It aimed at strengthening economic and strategic relations with Southeast Asian countries. Since India did not enjoy cordial relations with Pakistan, located to its west, and China, located to its north, the focus of this policy was enhancing trade, investment and long-established cultural ties with Southeast Asian states. This period was transforming the region’s economic and geo-political importance. Keeping this in view, India integrated itself with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. ASEAN promoted regional cooperation, security and connectivity and, overtime, addressed broader engagement related to security partnerships and strategic alliances.

Pakistan’s Look East policy refers to the country’s strategic initiative to strengthen diplomatic ties with China and East Asian countries by promoting economic partnerships and regional strategic cooperation. Earlier, Pakistan was closely engaged with the Western countries and its neighbours only. It was later realised that it needed to diversify its foreign relations and foster closer connections with countries like China, Korea, Japan and ASEAN nations. Key areas of Pakistan’s engagement with these countries included trade and investment, cultural ties, diplomatic understanding, strategic alliances and engagement in building infrastructure projects, such as the CPEC.

Since India is located to the east of Pakistan, it should also be included and analysed in Pakistan’s Look East policy. Gen Ayub had proposed a joint defence agreement with India in the early 1960s. This offer was aimed at fostering collaboration and promote regional cooperation and stability. It included a joint defence mechanism against common security threats; initiatives to promote dialogue between the two nations to build trust and reduce tensions; and integration of economic interests to support economic stability. A joint defence mechanism did not materialise due to complexities of India-Pakistan relations.

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto drew inspiration from Mao Zedong, among others, and tried to follow him in several ways, including political ideology and policy initiatives. He was influenced by Mao’s version of socialism that sought to redistribute land and implement agricultural reforms. His policy to curb feudalism through land reforms and empowering the rural and urban poor should be viewed in this perspective. He also subscribed to Mao’s anti-imperialist views that stressed self-reliance and resistance to foreign aggression and intervention.

Bhutto’s appeal to workers and peasants for building a popular support base for his party and revolutionary rhetoric resonated with Mao. Likewise, he framed his political struggle in the context of resistance to oppression and fighting for social justice; the emphasis on the need for societal change, modernisation, education and political awareness seemed to be inspired by Mao’s and China’s experience of revolution and reform. Bhutto also made a significant contribution to friendly China-Pakistan ties and was held in high personal regard by Chinese leaders.

The most recent planks of Pakistan’s Look East policy are the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and the China Pakistan Economic Corridor. Established in 2001, the SCO was conceived as a political, economic and military alliance. It was to promote regional security, economic cooperation and cultural exchanges among member countries. The CPEC, which is a framework of infrastructure projects, is aimed at enhancing connectivity and trade between China and Pakistan. Launched in 2015, it is a part of the larger Belt and Road Initiative. Pakistan has pinned its hopes for rapid development on this and is looking to revive its economy and raise its security edifice. The euphoria the recent SCO summit created, can be understood in this context.

The writer heads the History Department at University of Sargodha. He has worked as a research fellow at Royal Holloway College, University of London. He can be reached at abrar.zahoor@hotmail.com His X handle: @AbrarZahoor1