Pakistani decision-makers can draw significant lessons from the sociopolitical evolution that occurred in the West from the Renaissance onwards. Shifting from the overt application of raw power to more sophisticated and subtle means of influencing the collective will marked an essential transformation in power dynamics. This transformation suggested that true sovereignty resides not in coercion but in the effective consensus of the populace, as captured by the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau in his theory of the general will.

In ancient human societies, political power was often synonymous with physical force. Authority was maintained through direct, often brutal means, exemplified by the empires of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Rome. Kings and emperors wielded absolute power, backed by military might and the capacity to enforce their will through violence.

Julius Caesar’s rise to power in the Roman Empire, marked by military conquest and suppression of opposition, highlights the inherent instability and violence of such regimes. Highly pragmatic, Niccolò Machiavelli’s insight in The Prince that “If an injury has to be done to a man it should be so severe that his vengeance need not be feared,” underscored the brutal pragmatism of the era.

The Enlightenment period in Europe brought a significant intellectual shift, with thinkers like Rousseau questioning the legitimacy of power derived solely from force. Rousseau’s concept of the general will proposed that legitimate political authority arose from the collective agreement of the people. He emphasized consent and participation over coercion. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England, which marked a pivotal shift towards constitutional monarchy and the rule of law, illustrated a move away from absolute power to governance based on the consent of the governed.

Rousseau’s assertion in The Social Contract that “The strongest is never strong enough to be always the master, unless he transforms strength into right, and obedience into duty” captures this transformative idea.

The 19th and 20th Centuries saw the consolidation of democratic ideals and the institutionalisation of the general will. The development of representative democracies, the extension of suffrage and the establishment of constitutional checks and balances reflected a deeper commitment to governance based on popular consent.

The United States constitution, particularly the Bill of Rights, is a testament to this evolution. The framers of the constitution aimed to create a system where power derived from the people and was constrained by a framework of laws designed to protect individual liberties and prevent the concentration of power. James Madison’s observation in The Federalist Papers that “If men were angels, no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary” emphasises the need for institutional checks on power.

In contemporary times, the overt use of force has become less common in advanced polities. Instead, the manipulation of the general will has emerged as a significant tool of power. This manipulation often takes the form of propaganda and control of the media.

The use of propaganda by totalitarian regimes in the 20th Century, such as Nazi Germany and Stalinist Soviet Union, demonstrated how public opinion could be controlled to maintain power. In democratic societies, political campaigns and media strategies increasingly focus on shaping public perception and opinion. Noam Chomsky’s argument in Manufacturing Consent that “The smart way to keep people passive and obedient is to strictly limit the spectrum of acceptable opinion, but allow very lively debate within that spectrum” highlights the subtleties of modern manipulation.

Erich Fromm’s insights in The Sane Society further enhance the understanding of this evolution. Fromm argues that a healthy society should foster the full development of human potential and individuality, rather than conforming to authoritarian structures or passive consumption. He asserts that true freedom involves not just the absence of external constraints but also the availability of opportunities for self-realisation and active participation in social life.

Fromm’s critique of modern capitalist societies highlights the dangers of alienation and the loss of meaningful community bonds, emphasising that a sane society must be built on the principles of humanism, reason and love.

Karl Popper’s insights from The Open Society and Its Enemies also provide valuable lessons. Popper argues that an open society, characterised by a democratic government and a critical approach to governance, is essential for the protection of individual liberties and the prevention of tyranny. He criticises totalitarian regimes and the historical tendency towards authoritarianism, advocating for the protection of democratic institutions and the importance of fostering a culture of critical thinking and debate. Popper’s emphasis on the need for a society to remain open to reform and critical of its own structures reinforces the idea that a healthy political system must be both flexible and transparent.

The thoughts of Muslim thinker Ibn Khaldun and Allama Muhammad Iqbal offer profound insights that resonate deeply with Pakistani sensibilities. Ibn Khaldun, in his seminal work Muqaddimah, introduces the concept of asabiyyah (social cohesion), which he sees as the foundation of societal strength and political stability. Khaldun argues that the rise and fall of civilisations depends on their social cohesion and moral integrity. For Pakistani decision-makers, this underscores the importance of fostering national unity and social solidarity to create a resilient and enduring society.

Allama Iqbal, a philosopher, poet and politician in British India, who inspired the Pakistan movement, emphasised the reconstruction of religious thought in Islam and the importance of self-awareness and self-reliance. Iqbal’s vision of khudi (selfhood) advocates for the empowerment of individuals through education and spiritual awakening, which he believes are essential for the progress and independence of Muslim societies. Iqbal’s call for intellectual and spiritual renewal encourages Pakistani leaders to cultivate a sense of self-confidence and autonomy in their citizens, fostering a society that is both self-reliant and progressive.

The evolution of sociopolitical power from the exercise of naked force to the subtle manipulation of the general will underscores a fundamental change in the nature of governance. While the direct use of force has not entirely disappeared, its overt application has diminished in favour of more sophisticated means of control.

The developed world’s commitment to democratic principles and the rule of law stands in contrast to the more authoritarian practices in some regions. For Pakistani decision-makers, the challenge remains to ensure that the manipulation of the general will does not undermine the very principles of consent and participation that define legitimate political authority.

This lesson from the West’s history, combined with Fromm’s emphasis on creating a truly humanistic society, Popper’s advocacy for an open society, Ibn Khaldun’s emphasis on social cohesion, and Iqbal’s call for self-reliance and intellectual awakening, suggests that fostering genuine democratic practices, protecting individual liberties and promoting social well-being can help achieve a more stable society.

Lastly, adhering to the rule of law and the constitution is crucial to steer Pakistan out of its current challenges. The efficacy of this approach lies in establishing a stable and just society where governance is transparent and accountable.

By upholding the constitution, the ruling elite can ensure that power is exercised fairly and that individual liberties are protected, fostering trust and unity among the populace. This commitment to the rule of law not only prevents the arbitrary use of power but also promotes social cohesion and economic development, paving the way for long-term stability and prosperity.

The writer is a professor in the faculty of Liberal Arts at the Beaconhouse National University, Lahore