he three epistemic classifications are often perceived as distinct manifestations within the same domain of knowledge. However, their origins span disparate temporal and spatial contexts, imbuing them with nuanced semantic variations. Regrettably, the significance of this observation has seldom been underscored, thus serving as the focal point of this article.

Tarikh denotes a multifaceted concept encompassing “date, chronology, era,” and by extension, “annals, history, historiography.” This term transcends linguistic confines, extending its use to Persian, Urdu, Bengali and various Turkic languages, where it is notably prevalent in the titles of numerous historical works.

Historically, prior to the 19th Century, tarikh strictly pertained to the composition or comprehension of historical narratives. However, in contemporary Arabic usage, akin to the English term “history,”tarikh holds an equivocal nature, denoting both the events of the past and their representations.

It is noteworthy that the term “ta r kh” is not indigenous to the Arabic language, a realisation acknowledged by Arabic philologists since medieval times. The proposed derivation, suggesting a connection between the participle “mu arrakh,” meaning “dated,” and the Persian term “m h-r z,” denoting “month-day,” has been deemed erroneous by modern lexicographers.

Instead, there have been suggestions positing an unattested Old South Arabian origin for the plural form “taw r kh,” signifying “datings,” rooted in the Semitic lexicon pertaining to the “moon” or “month.” Although the Ge’ez term “t r k,” denoting “era, history, chronicle,” has occasionally been cited as a potential precursor to the Arabic term, it is, in fact, derived from it.

Just to digress for the readers’ sake, Ge’ez is an ancient Semitic language that was spoken in the region that is now Ethiopia and Eritrea. Ge’ez is one of the oldest written languages of Africa, with inscriptions dating back to at least the 5th Century BCE.

The earliest appearances of the term “tarikh” in historical literature date back to certain works from the 8th Century, with its prevalence solidifying by the 9th Century, establishing it as the standard designation within the genre. Notably, the term “akhb r,” translating to “reports, narratives,” serves as a synonym and also finds use in the titles of historical compositions, predating “ta r kh.”

It is worth mentioning that the universal adoption of “ta r kh” in historical titles was not absolute, as works of history were often identified by subject matter, such as biography or conquests, in addition to genre. Originally denoting a strictly chronological account, the semantic scope of “ta r kh” expanded over time to encompass various forms of historical narratives, including historical dictionaries.

Regrettably, there persists a misguided notion among some that history merely comprises a catalogue of dates, years, wars and adulation, devoid of deeper significance. Such misconceptions necessitate rectification through the diligent study of national history. Within the Islamic tradition, a rich heritage of historical inquiry and narrative exists, with luminaries such as Al Beruni acknowledging the historical consciousness prevalent in the Indian society.

Al Beruni, during his sojourn in India in the Twelfth Century, noted a deficiency in historical sensibility among Indians, observing that narratives often supplanted factual accounts. Nevertheless, subsequent scholars like the Kashmiri historian Kalhan demonstrated the methodological framework for constructing secular histories, exemplified by his seminal work the Rajatarangini, written in Sanskrit between 1148 and 1149.

Running into nearly 8,000 verses that are unequally distributed among eight books or sections, the Rajatarangini is an account of the royal dynasties that ruled the kingdom of Kashmir from its putative origins to the poet’s own time. In other words, it narrates nearly two millennia of the ancient and early medieval history of the Valley. Now let’s turn our gaze to ‘history.’

The earliest documented use of the term ‘history’ emerges in the late Middle English lexicon, tracing its etymological lineage through Latin from the Greek word historia, connoting both “finding out” and “narrative,” derived from histor, signifying a “learned” or “wise” individual. Within the intellectual milieu of ancient Greece, scholars endowed with sagacity employed history to embody the concept of the wise man.

Within this framework, the pronouncement of Renaissance essayist Francis Bacon resonates profoundly, asserting that “history gives wisdom.” Bacon posits that a profound understanding of one’s national history is indispensable, contending that without it, one risks subjugation by adversarial nations.

Thus, a comprehensive grasp of history becomes an imperative for all citizens. In the scholarly discourse of historiography, Herbert Butterfield discerns three principal categories of compositional forms prevalent in pre-classical Western antiquity, each bearing semblances of historical import: ballads and epics; annals documenting the reigns of monarchs; and the Hebrew scriptures.

These seminal works laid the foundational bedrock for the burgeoning historical consciousness that unfolded in Western civilisation, subsequently disseminating its influence to the Eastern hemisphere, notably the Indian subcontinent, concomitant with the advent of British colonial rule. Thus, the concept of “tarikh,” denoting historical narrative, became subsumed in this evolving framework of historiographic tradition. This brings us to Itihas which offers more space to historian to be imaginative.

The term “Itihasa,” although ancient, finds its association predominantly in the Puranic literature, one of a class of Hindu sacred writings chiefly from AD 300 to AD 750. It comprised popular myths and legends and other traditional lore.

It is important to state here that the Puranic literature is encyclopedic. It includes diverse topics, such as cosmogony, cosmology, genealogies of gods, goddesses, kings, heroes, sages and demigods, folk tales, pilgrimages, temples, medicine, astronomy, grammar, mineralogy, humour, love stories, as well as theology and philosophy.

“Itihasa,” translated as “so it has been,” serves as a conduit for conveying heroic histories, epitomised by the Mahabharata. Sreedharan contends that the earliest forms of oral tradition — the gathas, narasamsi, akhyana, itivrtta and vamsanucharita seem to have absorbed by the puranas and itihasa.

Itihasa, in essence, represents a narrativised rendition of history, diverging from the conventional historiographical approach focused solely on factual documentation. Rather, Itihasa emphasises storytelling and narrative embellishments to elucidate particular aspects of historical events. Consequently, the veracity of Itihasa is contingent upon the author’s interpretation and creative license, rendering it susceptible to imaginative variations.

For instance, the Indian epics Ramayana and Mahabharata serve as exemplary Itihasas, where the locales associated with figures such as Rama, Krishna and the Pandavas are grounded in tangible geography, yet the events depicted therein transcend historical actuality, embodying instead the author’s narrative vision.

Itihasas are characterised by firsthand accounts provided by individuals who directly witnessed the events, thus offering an authentic and immediate perspective on historical occurrences. Ranjiv Kurup, in his work, History and Philosophy of the Hindu, asserts that Itihasa transcends mere historical documentation. It serves as a vehicle for elucidating fundamental spiritual concepts and remains a perennially relevant text for those engaged in public service or the quest for self-realisation.

For instance, the Ramayana delves into the significance of “maryada” (moral conduct), while the Mahabharata elucidates the concept of “dharma” (righteousness).

In contrast, the Puranas, ancient Hindu texts, occupy a distinct temporal realm, diverging from the immediacy of Itihasa. Puranas delve into events spanning vast epochs, possibly stretching back billions or even trillions of years to previous “kalpas” (cosmic cycles) or creations.

Unlike Itihasas, Puranas are not confined to recent historical narratives; rather, they encompass a vast expanse of time and space. Puranic narratives often contain metaphorical and allegorical elements, concealing deeper layers of meaning beneath their surface text.

Crafted by revered sages whose direct experience of the events they chronicle was absent, the Puranas emerge as profound manifestations of contemplative introspection, intended to transmit enduring insights across generations.

Itihasa presents a more immediate and firsthand narrative of historical occurrences, while the Puranas transcend such temporal limitations, offering a panoramic vista of metaphysical inquiry into the cosmic fabric and the fundamental verities of existence.

Itihasa, distinct from conventional history or tarikh, is deeply entrenched in a distinctively Indian tradition, its trajectory confined predominantly to the subcontinent. Consequently, unlike its counterparts, Itihasa resisted facile secularisation, remaining rooted in its religio-cultural heritage.

The writer is a Professor in the faculty of Liberal Arts at the Beaconhouse National University, Lahore