Dr Agnese Fusaro is an archaeologist specialising in ceramics. She currently holds the position of assistant professor at the Silk Road International University of Tourism and Cultural Heritage in Samarkand. She earned her PhD in Islamic Archaeology from Sapienza University of Rome in 2014 and is a member of the joint Italian-Pakistani Historical-Archaeological Expedition of the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore at Banbhore, Sindh, Pakistan. She has worked with several Italian missions, including those in Iraqi Kurdistan, Iran, and Uzbekistan. She collaborates with the University of Barcelona on various research projects related to Central Asian ceramics.

In 2017-2018, Dr Fusaro received the Max van Berchem Foundation’s award for her independent project on studying ceramics at the site of al-Balid in Oman. She is still working on this site as a member of a new Italian archaeological mission led by the University of Naples L’Orientale. Her research has been published in international journals and she regularly presents her work at seminars and conferences. This interview with The News on Sunday was conducted at the Bhanbhore site in December 2022. Excerpts:

The News on Sunday (TNS): How does the discovery of ceramics broaden our understanding of the Bhanbhore site?

Dr Agnese Fusaro (AF): Let me be frank and state that the long history of Bhanbhore is reflected in the ceramics recovered at the site so far. The joint Pakistani-Italian-French historical-archaeological mission before and the joint Pakistani-Italian historical-archaeological mission still ongoing have conducted excavations and surveys both inside and outside the fortified town, collecting a huge quantity of findings, ranging from shells, bone and ivory items, metals, glasses, stone items and coins. Among these, ceramics are the most abundant artefacts.

TNS: Exactly what clues do these provide?

AF: The ceramic material is very useful to understand a site because it gives plenty of information concerning chronology, technology, culture, fashion and styles, social and economic aspects, trade networks, functions and uses of the finding contexts such as buildings and areas.

TNS: On what bases is pottery grouped?

AF: Generally speaking, pottery can be first divided into two main classes, glazed and unglazed, based on the presence of a glassy coating (glaze) covering the surfaces; secondly, the ceramics can be grouped according to their provenance: local productions are attested at Bhanbhore, they represent the majority of the corpus, together with imported ceramics from different regions and lands. However, we shouldn’t forget that pottery can be further divided into different phases of manufacture and circulation.

TNS: What are the particular features of the Bhanbhore pottery?

AF: Bhanbhore’s productions are distinguished on the basis of the colour of the body: red ware and grey ware. This difference is achieved by carefully controlling the firing process of the vessels: in the first case, an oxidising atmosphere is required, i.e., oxygen freely circulated in the kiln; in the second case, the grey colour is obtained by introducing carbon that is deposited over the surface and removes the oxygen. The second technique is more complex than the first, thus suggesting more developed skills among the potters.

TNS: What can be inferred from the pottery found within the citadel [of Bhanbhore] and its surroundings?

AF: As a preamble, let me state that the lifetime of the fortified town spans from the very first centuries CE to the beginning of the 13th Century when it was definitely abandoned. Nonetheless, ceramic finds recovered during the survey conducted outside the fortified town confirm the sporadic use and/ or occupation of the large area around the citadel even after the abandonment of the latter: some of the vessels can be compared with those found at two other sites of the Indus delta, Mullah Kay Kot and Lahore Bandar, already investigated by Monique Kervran, and can be dated to the 14th-18th Centuries.

TNS: What decorative designs and shapes have you discovered?

AF: Let me set the context first; the pottery items within the corpus of Bhanbhore distinguish two larger periods, the pre-Islamic and the Islamic ones. The pottery of the pre-Islamic period at Bhanbhore is exclusively unglazed. Red ware is the almost sole production circulating, ranging from very simple vessels with almost no decoration, mainly conical basins and pots with splayed necks, to most decorated closed vessels showing animals and flowers incised, stamped or painted in black and red over the red body or sometimes over a white-slipped ground.

TNS: What were other artistic impressions?

AF: No doubt, geometric motifs are used. But, we also found very special vessels that, for their shaping and decorative techniques, can be considered of higher quality and more refined, as more developed skills and knowledge are required to manufacture them: they were shaped by using moulds and are characterised by relief decoration representing very detailed, human and animal figures and flowers, sometimes with micaceous slip spread over the surface giving them a shiny appearance. This production includes a few grey vessels. However, representation of flora, fauna and human beings, frequently rendered in a very naturalistic way, is spread in the pre-Islamic period probably because of the religions attested in Bhanbhore before the arrival of Islam, whose artistic repertoires largely include them: Hinduism and Buddhism.

TNS: What were the motifs of Islam’s earlier period?

AF: Animal and vegetal motifs can also be found on some pottery produced at Bhanbhore in the very earliest phase of the Islamic period. However, they gradually became more stylised and finally disappeared. However, their survival, even after the arrival of Islam, suggests that no clear-cut change or revolution took place in the local pottery manufacture. The potters progressively adapted their repertoire to the new religious principles and new fashion. Vegetal and zoomorphic figures progressively reappear in the pottery circulating in the Bhanbhore area since the late Islamic period. Nowadays, stylised flowers and animals decorate vessels still used by Sindhi people.

TNS: What are the common colours of the pottery of the Bhanbhore site?

AF: We have found that red and black are the common colours of the pottery manufactured at Bhanbhore throughout the centuries, both concerning the body of the vessels and their painted decoration. Generally speaking, red is used for painting large bands, while black is used for outlining and drawing the main motifs. But, the red slip completely covering the body of the vessels was peculiar during the pre-Islamic period. Its use was certainly influenced by the red polished ware, a fashionable production spread from northern Pakistan to Gujarat and far beyond since the 2nd Century CE. Likewise, the use of white slip as a ground for the black and red painted decoration seems peculiar during the last centuries of the pre-Islamic period.

TNS: Why were red and black used so frequently?

AF: For unglazed ceramic vessels all over the world, red and black (with their different hues) are the most widespread colours for the decoration of pottery. Together with white, they are the only colours that can be obtained from mineral or organic pigments, which undergo a firing process at high temperatures, usually higher than 600°C. We shouldn’t forget the colour of the body depends on the nature of the clay used for producing the pottery and the specific conditions (mainly temperature and atmosphere) of the firing process.

TNS: What about grey ware?

AF: The grey ware required a more complex manufacturing process; it is less abundant than red ware at Bhanbhore and represents a more expensive and higher-quality production. No further colours are associated with the grey ware; as it was probably intended to imitate contemporary metal vessels, polishing is the only decorative technique, consisting of rubbing leather-hard surfaces with a tool and thus obtaining a shiny, lustrous appearance.

TNS: What is a particular tradition of the Bhanbhore pottery?

AF: An interesting tradition identified in the pottery production at Bhanbhore is the use of a micaceous slip. Micas are minerals naturally found in some rocks, including clays, characterised by their flat structure and shining silver or gold appearance. For this reason, this material was used for decorative purposes. At Bhanbhore, moulded relief-decorated vessels of the pre-Islamic period were sometimes further decorated with a mica slip. It was again used in the Islamic period, especially during the 10t and 11th Centuries, for decorating closed vessels and combined with black and red painted decoration. However, the use of micaceous slip seems more widespread in the manufacturing centres of northern Sindh, such as Sehwan Sharif and north Pakistan. At Bhanbhore, micas were also used for their more practical function: a thin layer of micas covering the interior of the body of a closed vessel during its shaping with the paddle and anvil technique prevented the anvil from getting stuck in the wet clay. This technique is still used in Sindh, as was recently documented in a small workshop near Hyderabad producing glazed tiles.

TNS: How would you comment on Bhanbhore’s pottery-making technology and style?

AF: By analysing and comparing the ceramic assemblages found in layers at various depths of the stratigraphy from the excavations of the site of Bhanbhore, it is possible to reconstruct an evolution of the local pottery manufacture in terms of technology and styles. Some aspects were maintained throughout the history of Bhanbhore, such as the colours used for painting, black and red; a tempered rough slip used to cover the lower half of the water pots’ body for keeping the water cool and for a tight grip of the vessels; the main shaping techniques, the wheel and the paddle and anvil technique, also used in combination for producing closed vessels. However, it is possible to underline some important changes, especially regarding technology. The use of the mould for shaping and decorating the vessels seems to be peculiar to the pre-Islamic period; it disappeared in the Islamic period at Bhanbhore while it continued to be used in other Sindhi centres, such as Sehwan Sharif.

TNS: How did the grey ware pottery evolve during the Islamic period?

AF: During the Islamic period, the production of grey ware started at Banbhore and resulted from an initial experimental phase. Indeed, the items produced at the very beginning of the Islamic era (8th-9th Century) were few in number and mostly defective. The skilful control of the technology for producing almost perfect and good quality grey items was reached around the 10th-11th Century and continued until the end of the life of the fortified town of Bhanbhore.

TNS: Was the grey technique/ style Bhanbhore-bound?

AF: No, this manufacturing technique developed almost in the same period also in other Sindhi centres, such as Sehwan Sharif. It seems peculiar to the Sindh region. It shouldn’t be forgotten that some grey vessels were already produced in the pre-Islamic period. More likely, this technology was a local development rather than an import. However, grey ware was certainly of higher quality than red ware because more complex technological knowledge is required, as I have said earlier. Also, the decorative techniques associated with this production are exciting and varied: incised, roulettes and stamped geometric decorations usually combine to form complex patterns. The tools ranged from pointed instruments to shells, combs, roulettes and stamps. Especially the use of comb and roulette seems peculiar to the Islamic period.

TNS: What about the glazed vessels?

AF: Sometimes, in the 9th and 10th Centuries, local potters also experimented with the production of glazed vessels. They were possibly influenced by the arrival and circulation of many glazed items (and artisans?) from other lands. Our research on this production at Bhanbhore is ongoing to better understand which wares were manufactured here and how long this manufacture lasted. However, we can suggest that at least green monochrome glazed vessels were produced at Bhanbhore around the 10th Century in a specialised updraft kiln. We shouldn’t forget that the close similarities concerning the evolution of pottery manufacture and the types of production among various centres in Sindh and the lower Punjab suggest common cultural patterns and styles and shared technological knowledge. This interconnection was certainly favoured during the early Islamic period under the Habbari dynasty.

TNS: How does pottery fit in the archaeology discipline as a source?

AF: In any archaeological context, pottery is a fundamental documentary source to trace the trade networks active in different periods of the life of a site and its connection with other centres, regions and lands. Ceramics, especially high-quality and refined vessels, were often considered valuable items to be sold for their aesthetic features. However, more common and less beautiful vessels, such as large jars used to transport liquid or dry goods, also circulated. Through comparative analysis of ceramics from different archaeological sites and archaeometric analysis, it is possible to distinguish local and imported items and identify the provenance centres of the wares.

TNS: So, looking at the pottery, how do you see Bhanbhore’s commercial life?

AF: Banbhore was an important market and trading centre along the land and sea commercial routes. The pottery analysis conducted so far shows that some changes in trade relationships occurred in different periods. During the pre-Islamic period, Bhanbhore had important connections with other regions of the Indian subcontinent: pots and sprinklers belonging to the red polished ware from Gujarat but also Maharashtra are the most spread import, along with other less-quality vessels coming from Gujarat and Rajasthan. In the same period, some exchanges with western regions of the Indian Ocean and the Gulf are also proved by the presence of torpedo jars, peculiar storage containers whose interior is usually covered with an impermeable black substance; their circulation at Bhanbhore continued also in the Islamic period until the 10th Century.

TNS: What were Bhanbhore’s trade connections in the various eras?

AF: In the early Islamic period, Bhanbhore’s interests definitely moved towards the west, probably because Sindh was incorporated within the Umayyad caliphate first and the Abbasid caliphate afterwards. Unglazed eggshell jugs, Sasanian-Islamic turquoise jars, and opaque glazed vessels originating from the Iraqi and Iranian regions were spread at Banbhore in the 8th-10th Centuries. Especially the first two productions started during the Sasanian period, but they reached Banbhore only during the Islamic period. The third one is a very high-quality production, especially linked with Samarra and Basra.

TNS: Did you notice any change in imported items over the period?

AF: Yes, from the 10^th and 11th Centuries, new imported glazed items started arriving at Bhanbhore and circulated throughout the 12th Century. These were: underglaze and slip-painted ware, splashed ware, splashed sgraffito ware and sgraffito and dot-painted ware. These imports testify to intense connections with Iranian regions via sea and land routes; some slip-painted ware and the sgraffito dot-painted ware also confirm trade links with Central Asian regions. During the same period, Bhanbhore’s relations with other Sindhi centres were also strong, as suggested by the finding of several ceramics typical of Sehwan Sharif.

TNS: If we took pottery as a piece of evidence, then how was Bhanbore connected regionally?

AF: There is some evidence that from the 9th to 12th Centuries, Bhanbhore received a good number of vessels from China. On the other hand, pottery found at Bhanbhore is also discovered at the sites of the eastern and southern coasts of the Arabian Peninsula, the East African coast, the Iranian coast and at the Gujarat coast. Therefore, we may say that it reflects the connections of Bhanbhore with many harbours/ markets along the Indian Ocean and farther east. These links are further confirmed by the presence of Sindhi unglazed red and grey pots at sites in Oman, Yemen, South Iran, Arabia, East Africa and Gujarat, suggesting that Sindhi people (maybe artisans, merchants) called in and even settled in those countries. Now, it is clear that this site was one of the major ports in the Indian Ocean, a market for the distribution and redistribution of goods within international trade until the final abandonment of its fortified town (early 13th Century).

TNS: What were the societal profiles of the users of the pottery?

AF: Pottery can indeed provide insights into socioeconomic aspects of the past. In the case of Bhanbhore, if we concentrate on the early Islamic period (8th-12th Century), we can suggest that there existed a high social class that demanded and could afford the purchase of expensive and high-quality ceramics imported from far-away lands, such as Iraq to the west and China to the east. Moreover, pottery analysis also suggests a difference between people living inside and outside the fortified town, especially for the time span of the 9th-10th Century. Indeed, lower-quality or defective local unglazed vessels are frequently recovered in the area north of the citadel, where artisanal activities were concentrated. In the layers of the same period inside the citadel, much higher-quality local vessels are spread. This difference can be twofold: it can suggest a different socio-economic status of the people living inside and outside the fortified town, or it can reflect different needs in the two areas associated with different uses and activities.

TNS: Is similar pottery still being produced in Sindh?

AF: Amazingly, yes. Let me say that unglazed pottery production in Sindh has shown great longevity. Comparing vessels recovered during the excavations and survey at Bhanbhore with contemporary pottery produced in Babra village, sold in the local Dhabeji and Gharo markets, and used in the villages around the archaeological site, it is clear that a continuity of the pottery tradition exists in this area.

TNS: Could you explain more?

AF: This continuity can be identified in the vessels’ decorative or shaping techniques and forms rather than motifs and designs. For example, nowadays, hearths/ dish warmers with the same form and clay as those recovered in the 9th-11^th Century layers are still available in the local markets. Large pots of the same form as the ancient ones spread at Bhanbhore are still used for storing cool water in the village houses around the site. Large dishes with coordinated bodies and black-painted decorations nowadays share the same form and decorative technique as those found on the site, attributed to the 16th-18th Centuries. Furthermore, the use of micaceous and tempered slip, rouletted decoration and moulded relief decoration on contemporary vessels clearly testify to the survival of more ancient techniques whose origin can be traced both in the pre-Islamic and the Islamic period of Bhanbhore.

TNS: What are the factors of continuity?

AF: This continuity of pottery manufacture can be explained because it is one of the most developed and leading crafts since the Indus civilisation. I think other factors also facilitated this continuity. For example, the traditional way of knowledge transfer within a pottery workshop is still alive in Sindh. It allows the survival of this craft: from master to apprentice (sometimes belonging to the same family) by oral transmission and practical ‘lessons’. Specific culinary habits, recipes and ways of cooking preserved in the local tradition also require specific traditional pottery vessels that can hardly be replaced by new materials if the original delicious taste wants to be achieved. The low cost of the pottery and, at the same time, its efficiency for some specific functions (e.g., cooling water) also contributed. I think it was one of the major factors for survival. But, the importance attributed by local people to certain objects and related traditions and history also helps to preserve the pottery manufacture as part of their cultural heritage and legacy. This phenomenon is visible in rural areas.

The interviewer has a PhD in history from the University of Malaya, Malaysia. His areas of interest are peasant history, colonial history, heritage and history of archaeology. He may be reached at junejozi@gmail.com