China, a tale of civilisation: Part - I

Every civilisation develops in its own environment and acquires a different identity and characteristics. As a result, we find a unique character in China’s civilisation that is different from other civilisations.

The Chinese writing system was introduced during the Shang period (from 1600 BC to 1046 BC) and persists to date with some modifications while the cuneiform script of Mesopotamia and the hieroglyphs of Egypt were discontinued after a specific historical period. The Indus Valley Civilisation’s script has not been deciphered. As a result, China is the only country that has retained its old script.

The rulers of the Shang Dynasty claimed to be the ‘sons of heaven’ – a title that was adopted by the successive royal dynasties. The royal court introduced a number of ceremonies and rituals that created a high image of the king and persuaded the nobility as well as the people to obey the rulers. When someone appeared before the king, he had to prostrate in front of the throne three times to pay homage to the ruler.

The Chinese court was so particular about these ceremonies that even ambassadors were forced to perform them. When a British envoy came to China, it took nearly a month or two to convince him to act according to the established practice of the court. On his refusal, the protocol officers agreed to accept his proposal to kneel and pay his respect as per the rules of his country.

The Chinese regarded their civilisation to be superior to others and had no desire to learn anything from the outer world. They considered China to be the centre of the world and contemptuously termed other nations as ‘barbarians’. Although the Great Wall of China was constructed to prevent invasions from neighbouring nomad tribes, a historian has pointed out that one of the reasons that the fortifications were built was to deter Chinese people from travelling outside their own territory and developing contacts with the ‘barbarians’. This explains why all inventions that were made in China had no extraneous influences and merely fulfilled internal requirements. The Chinese did not believe in any evolutionary process within their civilisation and viewed it as a mature and perfect civilisation.

During the Zhou Dynasty, which is also known as the Spring and Autumn period of the civilisation, there were hundreds of philosophers who wandered through various states to guide the rulers on how to rule and provide facilities to the people. One of them was Confucius. An eminent philosopher, he sought to gain employment at any court of the Chinese state. But after he failed in this endeavour, he returned to his hometown Lu and began teaching students.

After his death, his teachings were compiled by his disciples in a book titled ‘The Analects’. On the basis of his teaching, the ruling classes of China organised an efficient bureaucracy that was trained on strict moral and ethical values. His teachings emphasised the need for harmony and the hierarchical structure in society.

Chinese philosopher and military strategist, Sun Tzu (496 BC) also greatly influenced the Chinese culture. In ‘The Art of War’ , he advised against taking any abrupt and immediate actions against the enemy in the battlefield. As a result, harmony and restraint were the two principles that were strictly followed by the Chinese in matters of diplomacy and governance.

During the Han Dynasty (207 BC-206BC), China suffered as a result of successive invasions from nomad tribes. To check their incursions, the Chinese court adopted three methods. The first was to pay tribute to them by providing them silk and food and marrying Chinese princesses to their leaders in the hope that it would goad them to change their rustic life and assimilate themselves into the Chinese culture. The second method was to support conflicts between two nomadic tribes so as to weaken their military power. The third strategy – in case the first two methods failed – was to declare war against the tribes, crush their power and force them to submit to the Chinese court.

The principle of dividing and involving ‘barbarian’ powers in a war against each other continued throughout Chinese history. In the 19th century, when the European powers arrived in China to trade, the Chinese court encouraged England and France to fight against each other. This policy continued during the revolutionary period when two ‘barbarians’ – Russia and the US – were embroiled in a conflict that was to China’s advantage.

China made contacts from the outside world during the Han period and imported silk and porcelain as far as to the Roman Empire. It opened the Silk Road, which connected China to Central Asia and Europe. In Rome, silk was quite popular among patrician women. Rome, therefore, had to pay gold coins for silk and porcelain. The Roman Senate was upset about losing such a large amount of gold in exchange for silk. But as the demands of the aristocracy persisted, traders began bringing these items in abundance.

When the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) assumed control, the port of Manila, which was under Spanish control, became the hub of commercial activities. Spanish ships brought silver from South America and exchanged it for Chinese goods. As a consequence, China accumulated gold and silver in a large quantity. In its early phase of trade relations with the outside world, China profited because it exported its goods and did not import anything from other countries. The arrangement was unilaterally beneficial for China.

To be continued

The writer is a veteran historian and scholar.