The Pakistani nation is gearing up to celebrate its 77th independence anniversary. Currently, the country is reeling from the daunting effects of economic and political instability, further compounded by societal polarization...
COVER STORY
The Pakistani nation is gearing up to celebrate its 77th independence anniversary. Currently, the country is reeling from the daunting effects of economic and political instability, further compounded by societal polarization. It seems Pakistan is drifting away from the lofty goals and future envisioned by its founding fathers and visionaries like Iqbal and Jinnah. To understand the factors that led to Pakistan’s current predicaments, one must become familiar with the country’s post-independence history. The events and decisions taken over the past 77 years have significantly shaped the trajectory of millions.
Pakistan officially came into existence on August 14, 1947. The Muslim community of the subcontinent, under the leadership of visionary leaders associated with the All-India Muslim League, managed to gain independence from the British Raj. They also thwarted the Congress’s efforts to persuade the exiting British Raj to form a single national entity, instead advocating for the creation of two distinct nations to cater to the cultural, religious, and societal needs of different segments. This political and social mobilization, led by the Muslim League, finally bore fruit, and the Muslims and other minority communities were granted a nation of their own.
The challenges faced by Pakistan at its inception were formidable. The new state had to manage the rehabilitation of millions of refugees, set up a functional bureaucratic system, and address the unresolved issues left by the British withdrawal, particularly regarding the demarcation of boundaries and the status of princely states like Kashmir.
As we delve into Pakistan’s post-independence history, we will explore how the decisions and events over the past 77 years have shaped the nation’s current state. This journey through history will shed light on the complexities and challenges that have influenced Pakistan’s development and future trajectory.
At the time of its inception, Pakistan faced multiple crises potent enough to bring the newly-born state to its knees. Quaid-e-Azam was sworn in as the first governor-general shortly after the Declaration of Independence from the British Raj. The first major crisis Quaid had to deal with was the rehabilitation of refugees who had emigrated to the newly-born country, a nation that was a manifestation of their dreams and aspirations.
According to figures published by the Harvard Kennedy School in The Big March: Migratory Flows after the Partition of India, a total of 7.2 million individuals emigrated to Pakistan, including modern-day Bangladesh. A laborious process was launched at the behest of Quaid-e-Azam and his stalwarts, involving the establishment of large-scale refugee camps, the management of funds for refugee rehabilitation, and the creation of a bureaucratic machinery to handle this turbulent migratory exercise. The boundary lines demarcated by the boundary commission and the procedure involving autonomy over privately administered princely states stirred another wave of upheaval. The British Empire retreated from the region in haste and was in no mood to resolve issues that inevitably led to contention between the two countries.
The case of Kashmir stands out in this regard. The ruler of Kashmir at that time, Hari Singh, under the influence and pressure exerted by the Indian establishment, signed the Instrument of Accession in October 1947 against the aspirations of the local populace, who had staged a mutiny. The armed rebellion staged by local fighters included participants from the then NWFP (modern-day KPK). The conflict, involving the deployment of Pakistani troops in response to the deployment of Indian troops in the region, continued until January 1949, when both parties agreed to employ restraint under a UN-brokered ceasefire agreement. The UN Security Council adopted a resolution mandating that the future of the state be determined by a referendum, to be presided over by a neutral entity, allowing the local populace to choose its future course of action. However, the referendum and the Security Council’s resolution have yet to be enacted.
The Pakistani nation was orphaned a year after its inception when its ailing founding father, Quaid-e-Azam, passed away on September 11, 1948. Khawaja Nazimuddin succeeded Quaid as governor-general of Pakistan, while Liaquat Ali Khan remained the prime minister until his assassination in Rawalpindi in October 1951.
Pakistan and India, as per the partition plan, were warranted to relinquish the dominion status bestowed upon them by the exiting British Raj once the constitution had been drafted and enacted by the respective legislative bodies of the two countries. India ceased to exist as a dominion of the UK after it adopted and passed its constitution in 1950. It took an additional six years for Pakistan’s two constituent assemblies to draft and enact the constitution in letter and spirit. The formation of a second constituent assembly led to the landmark case of Federation of Pakistan v. Maulvi Tamizuddin Khan in 1955.
Pakistan was reeling from political instability during its early stages after the demise of some of the important leaders of the Muslim League, who had kept the party unified. Other esteemed members of the party parted ways due to dissent within the party. During the seven years following the demise of Liaquat Ali Khan, Pakistan was administered by six prime ministers, two governor-generals (a designation that was abolished after the promulgation of the constitution), and one president.
The grim political outlook of the country and the decaying condition of law and order prompted President Sikandar Mirza to nullify the constitution and declare martial law in October 1958. General Ayub Khan, who was designated as the prime minister and chief martial law administrator of the country, dismissed President Sikandar Mirza, forced him into exile, and consequently ushered in a new era of dictatorship.
General Ayub introduced major reforms to strengthen the local economy, focusing on manufacturing and agriculture. His administration launched the Green Revolution to modernize farming. Land reforms were also implemented to reduce the power of feudal lords, though this received mixed reactions from analysts. However, Ayub’s time in office was marked by criticism that 23 influential families controlled a large part of the economy, and the government did not take steps to make the economy more inclusive for others.
To support farmers financially, the Zarai Taraqiyati Bank was established in 1961. The Ayub administration also developed and built two large dams, Tarbela and Mangla. In 1960, Pakistan and India signed the Indus Water Treaty, brokered by the World Bank, to divide control over six major rivers. Under the treaty, Pakistan received the Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab rivers, while India got the Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej rivers. Irrigation systems across the country were improved for better productivity. Additionally, Ayub introduced social security programs like the Muslim Family Law Ordinance to protect the rights of women and children.
Ayub Khan legitimized the military takeover by introducing a new constitution in 1962. This constitution established a presidential system of governance and a single legislative body that was under the president’s control. Ayub was known for suppressing political opponents and dissent, often ignoring democratic principles. The 1965 elections were marked by electoral fraud designed to benefit him, resulting in the defeat of Mohtarma Fatimah Jinnah, a strong candidate unanimously supported by four major political parties in the Combined Opposition Party.
Ayub’s victory in the general elections was short-lived, as the Pakistani nation soon faced an armed conflict with India. On September 6, 1965, the Indian military launched an offensive against Pakistan. The Indian government claimed this action was a retaliation for a covert military operation by Pakistan, known as “Operation Gibraltar,” in the Indian-administered Kashmir region. However, Pakistan has consistently argued that India’s aggression was not provoked by Pakistani actions. The war lasted for 13 days and ended with a ceasefire brokered by the UN, with the help of global superpowers like the USA and USSR.
In January 1966, an agreement was signed between India and Pakistan in Tashkent, with the USSR serving as the mediator. The accord required both nations to withdraw their forces from the territories occupied during the war and to resolve future disputes through dialogue.
Several factors contributed to the fall of Dhaka, with one notable aspect being the imbalance in the distribution of military resources, as noted in the biography of General Mirza Aslam Baig, a former Chief of Army Staff. The conflict, which began in March 1971, stemmed from long-standing tensions between East Pakistan and West Pakistan, fueled by political, economic, and linguistic disparities. Indian forces, intervening in support of the Bangladeshi independence movement, launched a major offensive that played a critical role in the conflict, which ultimately led to the creation of Bangladesh.
This segment of the history of Pakistan laid the groundwork for the future course of action undertaken by the subsequent elected representatives of the nation. We will go through the second half of Pakistan’s post-independence history in the next episode. Wishing you all a very happy Independence Day.
